During the nineteenth century, the shrine cities of Najaf and Karbala in Ottoman Iraq emerged as the most important Shii centers of learning. In a major contribution to the study of pre-modern Middle Eastern religious institutions, Meir Litvak provides the first in-depth discussion of the internal social and political dynamics of these communities. Tracing the historical evolution of Shii leadership throughout the century, he explores the determinants of social status among the 'ulama', the concept of patronage in the relationship between master and disciple, the structures of learning, questions of ethnicity, and financial matters. He also assesses the role of the 'ulama' as communal leaders who, in the face of an unfriendly Sunni government in Baghdad, often needed to adopt a more quietist political stance than their counterparts in Iran.