Once large caravans traversed huge distances to reach Middle Eastern cities whose wealth from long-distance trade, superior architecture, craftsmanship, and scientific knowledge filled Christian crusaders with awe. Europe knew nothing comparable until the late Middle Ages, when the systematic use of waterways made transportation more efficient. From the fourteenth century on, Europe surpassed the Middle East in most of the areas in which that region had formerly excelled. Charles Issawi focuses on the main reasons for the economic decline of the Middle East. He discusses climate, geography, and religion, with particular emphasis on the military elite, whose contempt for artisans and merchants thwarted positive economic initiatives. The role played by minorities and foreigners throughout the region's history is also examined.