Recommendations -- Background : Youth on trial -- Sentencing of youth to life without parole -- The difference between youth and adults -- Life without parole in adult prison -- Life without parole under U.S. law -- Just sentences for youth : International human rights law -- Conclusion : Life without parole and the purposes of criminal punishment -- Appendix A. Note on research methods -- Appendix B. Note on statistical methods -- Appendix C. Sample letter soliciting data from state correctional department -- Appendix D. State population data table -- Appendix E: Letters from five youth offenders serving life wtihout parole sentences in the United States.